Etymologically, the word aborigines comes from the latine “the first inhabitants” (especially of Latium) or from “from the beginnings”. It was extended in 1789 to natives of other countries, which Europeans have colonized.
Australian Aborigines have had a long history marked by colonization. Once Britons and James Cook invaded the territory, the condition of natives was put into question. Different answers came up as history went on, hesitating between violence and slaughter to segregation, assimilation and in the end a will to integrate these populations. Still, Aborigines are left apart from the Australian mainstream society. State officials remain defiant, as they still do not stick to a definitive way of dealing with them. This essay is to try to sum up the different methods adopted to cater for Aborigines, giving voice to several experts, and showing how complex the questions remain.
The main problem is: Australian should try to integrate Aborigines with regards to their traditions and customs. Herein lies the whole difficulty. A difficulty that is not specific to Australia. It is unfortunately the same problematics that are at stake concerning other native peoples.
· (Ab) origines
The word "aboriginal" means "the first" or "earliest known". The word was first used in Italy and Greece to describe people who lived there, natives or old inhabitants, not newcomers, or invaders. Australia may well be the home of the world’s first people. Stone tools discovered in a quarry near Penrith, New South Wales, in 1971 show that humans lived in Australia at least twelve thousand years before they appeared in Europe.
Willem Janszoon (Dutch) was the first European on the Australian continent (1605). James Cook (British) rediscovered New Zealand after one century of silence, explored the east coast of Australia and named it "Newsouthwales". Afterwards the government of Britain decided to use Australia for the new penal colony. In the year 1788, a fleet under Captain Philip came with approximately 700 prisoners. They founded Sydney. There were approximately 750000 Aborigines when Sydney was first settled by the British. The British thought they could take away the land from the natives, because they saw no system of government, no commerce or permanent settlements and no evidence of landownership. The Sydney Cove colony was founded on the legal principle of "terra nullius" - this meant that the land belonged to no one. This notion of “terra nullius” was only overthrown in 1993. One thing is interesting here: this is what is called “doctrines of dispossession”. It is as if politicians and thinkers had the faculty to produce texts and treatises that rhetorically justify what they did. It gave a clear conscience to those who shared powers, as their atrocities were given a sense by legislative texts. Take for example two Papal bulls of the time, Romanus Pontifex[1] and Inter Caetera[2]. Those two bulls set the stage for European domination of the New World and Africa. Then came the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) that redivided the Globe. The two Papal bulls have never been revoked, though indigenous representatives have asked the Vatican to consider doing so.
These “doctrines of discovery” provided the basis for both the “law of nations” and subsequent international law. Thus, they allowed Christian nations to claim “unoccupied lands” (terra nullius), or lands belonging to “heathens” or “pagans”. In many parts of the world, these concepts later gave rise to the situation of many Native peoples in the today - dependent nations or wards of the State, whose ownership of their land could be revoked - or “extinguished” – at any time by the Government.
Many Aborigines were driven away from their land by force and a large number got numerous diseases. The balance between nature and the people was broken down, because many bought alcohol and drugs from the settlers. Whole tribes were massacred when the Aborigines fought back. The survivors were put into reservations and church missions. Many women were raped. Some Europeans saw the Aborigines as wild animals and hunting them was a kind of sport. Full-blood Aborigines in Tasmania were therefore wiped out. There were only 61,000 left in the early thirties of the 20th century. Today, such practices would be called ethnic cleansing and genocide.
· Segregation / assimilation
As history went on, politicians and thinkers hesitated between a process of assimilation, and one of segregation. This is quite clear today, as 30% of Aborigines live in the outbacks. They are completely desocialized, whereas others try their luck in cities but face segregation.The scientific interest for the Aborigines came. By the early 1900s, the British wanted to segregate and "protect" the Aboriginal people. Employment and property rights were restricted and the state removed children from mothers if the father was non-Aboriginal. This generation of kids was later to be called the “stolen generation”[3]. The positive side, they said, was that full-blood Aborigines living in reservations were protected in some way. The assimilation policy of the 1960s completely controlled the peoples' life. They decided where the Aborigines could live and whom they could marry. The Aborigines were forced to adapt the European culture. The obvious goal was assimilation. The value inherent in indigenous cultures and knowledge was not recognized. The Aborigines became better educated and more organised after World War II. Citizenship was bestowed in 1967. The assimilation policy was replaced by policy of self-determination in 1972. Large parts of the Australian outback are desert. Many Aborigines live there nowadays. Today 200,000 Aborigines live in Australia. They had begun to forget their traditions and culture. Many had become sick and had begun to fight one another, but recent laws made it possible to regain their land. The problems disappeared when they came back to their land and lived there their traditional way of life. The Aborigines collect berries and seeds and they hunt kangaroos and other animals. The children learn more about their culture and language as well as English and mathematics. They are proud of their culture and their life, although they live in very poor houses and water is far away. After spending twenty-five years living in these communities the Reverend Steve Etherington reached the disturbing conclusion in an important analysis of the situation that “tribal Aborigines are a kept people ... The vast majority are never required to learn anything or do anything. Erosion of the capacity for initiative and self-help are virtually complete.”
Australian Aborigines have had a long history marked by colonization. Once Britons and James Cook invaded the territory, the condition of natives was put into question. Different answers came up as history went on, hesitating between violence and slaughter to segregation, assimilation and in the end a will to integrate these populations. Still, Aborigines are left apart from the Australian mainstream society. State officials remain defiant, as they still do not stick to a definitive way of dealing with them. This essay is to try to sum up the different methods adopted to cater for Aborigines, giving voice to several experts, and showing how complex the questions remain.
The main problem is: Australian should try to integrate Aborigines with regards to their traditions and customs. Herein lies the whole difficulty. A difficulty that is not specific to Australia. It is unfortunately the same problematics that are at stake concerning other native peoples.
· (Ab) origines
The word "aboriginal" means "the first" or "earliest known". The word was first used in Italy and Greece to describe people who lived there, natives or old inhabitants, not newcomers, or invaders. Australia may well be the home of the world’s first people. Stone tools discovered in a quarry near Penrith, New South Wales, in 1971 show that humans lived in Australia at least twelve thousand years before they appeared in Europe.
Willem Janszoon (Dutch) was the first European on the Australian continent (1605). James Cook (British) rediscovered New Zealand after one century of silence, explored the east coast of Australia and named it "Newsouthwales". Afterwards the government of Britain decided to use Australia for the new penal colony. In the year 1788, a fleet under Captain Philip came with approximately 700 prisoners. They founded Sydney. There were approximately 750000 Aborigines when Sydney was first settled by the British. The British thought they could take away the land from the natives, because they saw no system of government, no commerce or permanent settlements and no evidence of landownership. The Sydney Cove colony was founded on the legal principle of "terra nullius" - this meant that the land belonged to no one. This notion of “terra nullius” was only overthrown in 1993. One thing is interesting here: this is what is called “doctrines of dispossession”. It is as if politicians and thinkers had the faculty to produce texts and treatises that rhetorically justify what they did. It gave a clear conscience to those who shared powers, as their atrocities were given a sense by legislative texts. Take for example two Papal bulls of the time, Romanus Pontifex[1] and Inter Caetera[2]. Those two bulls set the stage for European domination of the New World and Africa. Then came the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) that redivided the Globe. The two Papal bulls have never been revoked, though indigenous representatives have asked the Vatican to consider doing so.
These “doctrines of discovery” provided the basis for both the “law of nations” and subsequent international law. Thus, they allowed Christian nations to claim “unoccupied lands” (terra nullius), or lands belonging to “heathens” or “pagans”. In many parts of the world, these concepts later gave rise to the situation of many Native peoples in the today - dependent nations or wards of the State, whose ownership of their land could be revoked - or “extinguished” – at any time by the Government.
Many Aborigines were driven away from their land by force and a large number got numerous diseases. The balance between nature and the people was broken down, because many bought alcohol and drugs from the settlers. Whole tribes were massacred when the Aborigines fought back. The survivors were put into reservations and church missions. Many women were raped. Some Europeans saw the Aborigines as wild animals and hunting them was a kind of sport. Full-blood Aborigines in Tasmania were therefore wiped out. There were only 61,000 left in the early thirties of the 20th century. Today, such practices would be called ethnic cleansing and genocide.
· Segregation / assimilation
As history went on, politicians and thinkers hesitated between a process of assimilation, and one of segregation. This is quite clear today, as 30% of Aborigines live in the outbacks. They are completely desocialized, whereas others try their luck in cities but face segregation.The scientific interest for the Aborigines came. By the early 1900s, the British wanted to segregate and "protect" the Aboriginal people. Employment and property rights were restricted and the state removed children from mothers if the father was non-Aboriginal. This generation of kids was later to be called the “stolen generation”[3]. The positive side, they said, was that full-blood Aborigines living in reservations were protected in some way. The assimilation policy of the 1960s completely controlled the peoples' life. They decided where the Aborigines could live and whom they could marry. The Aborigines were forced to adapt the European culture. The obvious goal was assimilation. The value inherent in indigenous cultures and knowledge was not recognized. The Aborigines became better educated and more organised after World War II. Citizenship was bestowed in 1967. The assimilation policy was replaced by policy of self-determination in 1972. Large parts of the Australian outback are desert. Many Aborigines live there nowadays. Today 200,000 Aborigines live in Australia. They had begun to forget their traditions and culture. Many had become sick and had begun to fight one another, but recent laws made it possible to regain their land. The problems disappeared when they came back to their land and lived there their traditional way of life. The Aborigines collect berries and seeds and they hunt kangaroos and other animals. The children learn more about their culture and language as well as English and mathematics. They are proud of their culture and their life, although they live in very poor houses and water is far away. After spending twenty-five years living in these communities the Reverend Steve Etherington reached the disturbing conclusion in an important analysis of the situation that “tribal Aborigines are a kept people ... The vast majority are never required to learn anything or do anything. Erosion of the capacity for initiative and self-help are virtually complete.”
The outbacks communitiesThis means these Aborigines who live in the outbacks are totally set apart from the Australian society. There is a physical separation from the rest of the society, which created a huge gap. So how now can Aborigines get integrated? The most important thing to be noticed in these remote communities is that they experience a loss of identity as well. Research highlighted that there was “a loss of the role of male” as traditional roles of hunter-gatherer have largely disappeared. There is a real prospect that, unless urgent remedial action is taken to encourage integration outside the communities, these policies will leave most of them as depressed areas. That, in turn, will be viewed as a failure of the reconciliation process – and will likely slow that process. There is a particular need to consider whether the government should continue to provide extensive services, including housing, that encourage Aborigines to stay in communities where limited employment opportunities are available. The more that facilities and welfare are provided to these communities, the less inclined the residents will be to make the integrationist moves that provide the basis for an improved way of life and for securing real employment. The road to improvement is most likely to be found through measures that encourage what is now a desperate need for increased integration. Accordingly, a better alternative might be to examine ways of helping the residents of these communities to move to areas where employment is more likely to be obtained and small businesses established. Peter Howson, a former Minister for Aboriginal Affairs, said: “this will require a move to places in which employment is more readily available, and it will involve a change in way of life and participation in new activities. But this need not mean the loss of indigenous identity and it should help restore the role of the male”[4]. There lies the difference between assimilation and integration...Indeed, the majority of the Aborigines live in towns, but many live in very bad conditions: Poor houses (slums), illiteracy, low wages, high unemployement rate and infant mortality rate, low life expectancy and alcohol and drugs are widespread proplems. There are racial discrimination and prejudices by the Whites to the Aborigines. Aborigines lack flamboyent models of integration: Cathy Freeman, a winner of a Gold medal at an Olympics and perhaps Eric Deeral, Queensland's first Aboriginal politician.
The International Community has also grown concerned with the condition of indigenous peoples. The United Nations first focused its attention formally on the problems of indigenous peoples in the context of its work against racism and discrimination.In 1970, the Subcommission on Prevention and Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (a subsidiary body of the Commission on Human Rights) commissioned Special Rapporteur Martinez Cobo of Ecuador to undertake a study on "The Problem of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations". That monumental study, completed only in 1984, carefully documented modern discrimination against indigenous peoples and their precarious situation. His report catalogued the wide variety of laws in place to protect native peoples: some of these were discriminatory in concept, and others were routinely disregarded by the dominant community. It concluded that the continuous discrimination against indigenous peoples threatened their existence. The establishment of the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations in 1982 was a direct result of the Cobo study.
Still, nothing is solved yet. Aborigines are still segregated, they stil face problems of racism, of unemployment, and at the same time they continue to lose their identities slowly. The difficulty lies in the fact that Australian authorities need to find an appropriate frontier between assimilation, integration and segregation.John Howard seems to be quite keen on finding a solution, but the next elections will determine if the President is to do something concrete in favor of those who were first on this land, the Aborigines.
Sources:
http://apology.west.net.au/ a website dedicated to Australians who wish to make amends for all that has been done to Aborigines
http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/Barani/themes/theme3.htm different recent laws passed concerning the condition of Aborigines in Australia
http://www.ebgymhollabrunn.ac.at/projekte/abori.htm
http://www.orac.net.au/~mhumphry/aborigin.html two websites giving a bird’s eye view of a history of Aborigines and explaining the main difficulties Aborigines have to cope with now
http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/summary_0199-2935599_ITM the failure of Aboriginal segregation, by Peter Howson
http://www.un.org/WCAR/e-kit/indigenous.htm an article that discusses racism against native peoples
[1] Romanus Pontifex was issued by Pope Nicholas V in 1452
[2] Inter Caetera was issued by Pope Alexander VI in 1493
[3] The stolen generations, an essay by Robert Manne, 1998
[4] The failure of Aboriginal segregation, Peter Howson, 2003
© Brice 2007
The International Community has also grown concerned with the condition of indigenous peoples. The United Nations first focused its attention formally on the problems of indigenous peoples in the context of its work against racism and discrimination.In 1970, the Subcommission on Prevention and Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (a subsidiary body of the Commission on Human Rights) commissioned Special Rapporteur Martinez Cobo of Ecuador to undertake a study on "The Problem of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations". That monumental study, completed only in 1984, carefully documented modern discrimination against indigenous peoples and their precarious situation. His report catalogued the wide variety of laws in place to protect native peoples: some of these were discriminatory in concept, and others were routinely disregarded by the dominant community. It concluded that the continuous discrimination against indigenous peoples threatened their existence. The establishment of the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations in 1982 was a direct result of the Cobo study.
Still, nothing is solved yet. Aborigines are still segregated, they stil face problems of racism, of unemployment, and at the same time they continue to lose their identities slowly. The difficulty lies in the fact that Australian authorities need to find an appropriate frontier between assimilation, integration and segregation.John Howard seems to be quite keen on finding a solution, but the next elections will determine if the President is to do something concrete in favor of those who were first on this land, the Aborigines.
Sources:
http://apology.west.net.au/ a website dedicated to Australians who wish to make amends for all that has been done to Aborigines
http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/Barani/themes/theme3.htm different recent laws passed concerning the condition of Aborigines in Australia
http://www.ebgymhollabrunn.ac.at/projekte/abori.htm
http://www.orac.net.au/~mhumphry/aborigin.html two websites giving a bird’s eye view of a history of Aborigines and explaining the main difficulties Aborigines have to cope with now
http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/summary_0199-2935599_ITM the failure of Aboriginal segregation, by Peter Howson
http://www.un.org/WCAR/e-kit/indigenous.htm an article that discusses racism against native peoples
[1] Romanus Pontifex was issued by Pope Nicholas V in 1452
[2] Inter Caetera was issued by Pope Alexander VI in 1493
[3] The stolen generations, an essay by Robert Manne, 1998
[4] The failure of Aboriginal segregation, Peter Howson, 2003
© Brice 2007
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